RUN smarter
For decades, the Yo‑Yo Intermittent Recovery tests (IR1/IR2) have been the go‑to for assessing aerobic and anaerobic capacity in team sports (Bangsbo, Iaia, & Krustrup, 2008). They are reliable, repeatable, and easy to administer. But hockey is not a sport of uniform shuttles — it’s a game of frenetic chaos: accelerations, decelerations, rapid changes of direction, and cognitive decisionmaking under fatigue.
In elite match play, players may cover 9–11 km, but the pattern is far from steady‑state. They perform hundreds of high‑intensity actions, often in bursts of 1–4 seconds, separated by incomplete recovery. The Yo‑Yo test, while valuable for broad benchmarking, does not fully capture these demands (Buchheit & Laursen, 2013). Nor does it directly prescribe training intensities that account for individual differences in sprint capacity.
Hockey‑Specific Limitation?
A midfielder’s repeated accelerations into space, a defender’s urgent close‑out, or a striker’s explosive criss cross or double fake lead to goal — these are not replicated by Yo‑Yo's predictable shuttle pattern. The test’s ecological validity for hockey is slightly limited.
The 30–15 Intermittent Fitness Test
(30–15IFT)
A Better Fit for Hockey?
The 30–15IFT, developed by Buchheit, alternates 30‑second runs with 15‑second passive recovery, increasing speed until exhaustion. The final velocity (VIFT) is a powerful tool for prescribing HIIT intensities (Buchheit & Rabbani, 2019).
Why It Works for Hockey:
Intermittent Structure: Mirrors the sport’s stop‑start rhythm. Individualised Prescription: VIFT allows HIIT intervals at 100–130% of capacity, reducing inter‑athlete variability.
Sensitivity to Adaptation: Detects small but meaningful changes in elite players.
Applied Example for Technical Staff
A defender with a VIFT of 18 km·h⁻¹ might train at 120% VIFT (21.6 km·h⁻¹) for 20 s intervals, with recovery adjusted weekly based on HRV and RPE.
MAS and ASR
The Twin Engines of Hockey Conditioning
Maximal Aerobic Speed (MAS) is the lowest speed at which VO₂max is achieved (Laursen & Buchheit, 2019). Anaerobic Speed Reserve (ASR) is the difference between MAS and maximal sprint speed (MSS), representing anaerobic potential (Sandford, Laursen, & Buchheit, 2021).
Read previous VOITTO work on these attributes:
Why Both Matter
MAS: Supports the aerobic base for sustained running and faster recovery between sprints.
Sustains high work‑rate over 60–70 minutes.
Improves phosphocreatine (PCr) resynthesis between sprints, enabling faster recovery (Buchheit & Laursen, 2013).
Supports defensive and transitional play where repeated accelerations are required.
ASR: The difference between an athlete’s maximal sprint speed (MSS) and their MAS (Scott, 2022).
ASR = MSS – MAS
Determines how much “speed in reserve” a player has during repeated sprints.
Higher ASR means the athlete can operate at a lower relative intensity during high‑speed bursts, delaying fatigue.
Training Principles
MAS Development
Intervals at or slightly above MAS (100–110%) with incomplete recovery to stress aerobic power (Dupont et al., 2004).
ASR Boost
Short, maximal sprints (≤ 6 seconds) with full recovery to target neuromuscular and anaerobic systems (Buchheit & Laursen, 2013).
Combine
MAS‑based intervals followed by short all‑out sprints to integrate aerobic and anaerobic qualities.
Generic MAS & ASR Sessions
Age & Sex Adjusted
60‑Year‑Old Male (Masters Hockey)
* Obviously, the relative load and rest interval scheduling will reflect the assessed baseline ASR score and where an individual is in their periodised plan.
Considerations
Reduced recovery capacity and muscle elasticity.
Higher injury risk — longer warmup, lower eccentric load.
Prioritise joint‑friendly surfaces and progressive overload.
MAS Session (Week 1–4)
Warm‑up: 10 min mobility + progressive strides.
Main: 6 × 2 min @ 90–95% MAS with 1 min walk/jog recovery.
Cool‑down: 5 min walk + stretching.
Sample ASR Session
Warm‑up: 10 min dynamic drills.
Main: 6 × 20 m flying sprints @ 90% MSS, 90–120 s recovery.
Focus: Maintain form, avoid overstriding.
35‑Year‑Old Female (Playing Masters & also Prems Level Hockey)
* Obviously, the relative load and rest interval scheduling will reflect the assessed baseline ASR score and where an individual is in their periodised plan.
Considerations:
Higher tolerance for high‑intensity load than older athletes.
Include menstrual cycle‑aware load modulation if relevant.
Maintain strength training to support sprint mechanics.
Sample MAS Session
Warm‑up: 8 min mobility + strides.
Main: 4 × 4 min @ 105% MAS with 3 min jog recovery (Norwegian 4×4 model).
Cool‑down: 5 min jog + mobility.
Sample ASR Session
Warm‑up: 8 min dynamic drills.
Main: 8 × 30 m flying sprints @ 95–100% MSS, 2–3 min recovery.
Optional: 4 × 150 m strides @ 85% MAS for aerobic‑anaerobic blend.
Hockey‑Specific Integration x layer
Forwards: High ASR allows repeated breakaways without drop‑off.
Midfielders: Balanced MAS and ASR support both work‑rate and explosive bursts.
Defenders: Strong MAS underpins recovery from high‑intensity defensive actions.
Training Example
MAS Development: 4×4 min at 105% MAS with equal recovery.
ASR Boost: Flying 30 m sprints with full recovery.
Combined: MAS‑based intervals followed by short all‑out sprints.
Nordic‑Inspired MAS Development
Nordic endurance sports offer valuable lessons for hockey conditioning. Terrain‑based modalities like rollerskiing, snowshoeing, and hill bounding build aerobic power while reducing joint strain (Connolly et al., 2002; Kuzio, 2018).
Benefits for Hockey Players
Oxygen Utilisation: Uphill and variable‑terrain work improves VO₂ kinetics.
Neuromuscular Coordination: Varied surfaces challenge stabilisers and improve pelvic rhythm.
Off‑Season Maintenance: Maintains aerobic base without repetitive turf impact.
Example
A rather exotic instance to be fair, depending where you live. But here in the SI of NZ we like to think outside the square. A recovering midfielder might use snowshoe intervals at 80% HRmax to maintain aerobic capacity while reducing load on the knees.
Alactic System Development: First Gear Acceleration
The alactic (ATP‑PCr) system powers efforts up to ~10 s without lactate accumulation — perfect for hockey’s 1–4 s sprints (Spencer et al., 2004). Enhancing this system improves peak sprint output and recovery between bursts (Sampaio & Janeira, 2003).
Masters Athlete Weekly Plan Strictly Generic
Day 1: 6×30 m all‑out sprints (3 min rest)
Day 2: Plyometrics — box jumps, depth jumps
Day 3: 4×20 m shuttle sprints (2 min rest)
Day 4: Strength — squats, deadlifts, kettlebell swings
Day 5: 8×40 m sprints (4 min rest)
Day 6: Active recovery
Day 7: Practice game with enforced alactic transitions
Multisurface Running for Longevity and Performance
Sand Increases energy cost by 20–60% and reduces impact forces by up to 400% (Pinnington & Dawson, 2001; Binnie et al., 2014).
Snowshoe Improves VO₂max by ~8.5% in six weeks (Connolly et al., 2002).
Dryland Nordic Blading: Enhances push‑off dynamics and aerobic capacity (Lovett, 2022; Kuzio, 2018).
Hockey Application
Sand sprints for off‑season power and joint relief.
Snowshoe loops for an aerobic base in cold climates.
Nordic blading for hip drive and core stability.
Repeat‑Sprint Ability (RSA)
RSA is the ability to perform short (~3–4 s) maximal sprints with brief recovery (~10–30 s) — a pattern ubiquitous in elite hockey (Spencer et al., 2004). Training RSA alongside MAS and ASR ensures balanced development of aerobic, anaerobic, and alactic systems.
Example Drill
Small‑sided games with enforced 15 s recovery between sprints to mimic match demands.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Andersson, E., Supej, M., & Holmberg, H. C. (2020). Anaerobic capacity and sprint performance in elite cross-country skiers. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 2, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2020.00001
Bangsbo, J., Iaia, F. M., & Krustrup, P. (2008). The Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test: Physiological response, reliability, and validity. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 40(4), 897–902. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e31816c3f38
Binnie, M. J., Dawson, B., & Pinnington, H. C. (2014). Impact forces and muscle damage following sand vs. grass running. Journal of Sports Sciences, 32(14), 1365–1373. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2014.889846
Bishop, D., Girard, O., & Mendez-Villanueva, A. (2011). Repeated-sprint ability—Part II: Recommendations for training. Sports Medicine, 41(9), 741–756. https://doi.org/10.2165/11590560-000000000-00000
Brown, T. N., & White, S. C. (2017). Biomechanical adaptations to sand running: Implications for injury prevention. Gait & Posture, 58, 224–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2017.08.002
Buchheit, M., & Laursen, P. B. (2019). Science and application of high-intensity interval training: Solutions to the programming puzzle. Human Kinetics.
Buchheit, M., & Rabbani, A. (2019). 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test vs. Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1: Relationship and sensitivity to training. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 14(6), 804–807. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2018-0482
Connolly, D. A., Brennan, K. M., & Lauzon, C. D. (2002). Effects of snowshoe running on aerobic fitness and muscle activation. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 16(4), 529–534. https://doi.org/10.1519/00124278-200211000-00014
Du, Y., & Tao, Y. (2022). High-intensity interval training based on anaerobic speed reserve improves performance and reduces variability. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 36(4), 1025–1032. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000003565
Ivaniski-Mello, A., Cubillos-Arcila, D. M., Dell’Anna, S., de Liz Alves, L., Martinez, F. G., Buzzachera, C. F., Saute, J. A. M., & Peyré-Tartaruga, L. A. (2024). Postural adjustments and perceptual responses of Nordic running: Concurrent effects of poles and irregular terrain. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 124(8), 1733–1745. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-023-05397-9
Kelemen, B., Benczenleitner, O., & Toth, L. (2024). The Norwegian double-threshold method in distance running: Systematic literature review. Scientific Journal of Sport and Performance, 3(1), 38–46. https://doi.org/10.55860/NBXV4075
Kodama, S., Saito, K., Tanaka, S., Maki, M., Yachi, Y., Asumi, M., Sugawara, A., Totsuka, K., Shimano, H., Ohashi, Y., Yamada, N., & Sone, H. (2009). Cardiorespiratory fitness as a quantitative predictor of all-cause mortality and cardiovascular events in healthy men and women: A meta-analysis. JAMA, 301(19), 2024–2035. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2009.681
Kuzio, J. (2018). Rollerski interval training improves aerobic capacity and anaerobic power in endurance athletes. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 28(5), 1234–1241. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.13012
Laursen, P. B., & Buchheit, M. (2019). Science and application of high-intensity interval training: Solutions to the programming puzzle. Human Kinetics.
Lovett, T. (2022). Dryland Nordic blading: A biomechanical and metabolic analysis. Journal of Applied Physiology, 132(3), 456–462. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00789.2021
Montero, D., et al. (2015). The impact of aerobic exercise training on arterial stiffness. European Journal of Cardiovascular Prevention & Rehabilitation, 22(5), 498–506. https://doi.org/10.1177/2047487314530360
Pinnington, H. C., & Dawson, B. (2001). Energy cost of running on sand vs. grass. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 85(5), 456–461. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-001-0485-7
Ross, A., Leveritt, M., & Riek, S. (2016). Neural influences on sprint running: Training adaptations and acute responses. Sports Medicine, 31(6), 409–425. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200131060-00002
Sampaio, J., & Janeira, M. (2003). Statistical analysis of basketball team performance: Understanding teams’ wins and losses according to a different index of ball possessions. International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport, 3(1), 40–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/24748668.2003.11868273
Sandford, G. N., Laursen, P. B., & Buchheit, M. (2021). Anaerobic speed/power reserve and sport performance: Scientific basis, current applications and future directions. Sports Medicine, 51(10), 2031–2050. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-021-01471-0
Spencer, M., Lawrence, S., Rechichi, C., Bishop, D., Dawson, B., & Goodman, C. (2004). Time-motion analysis of elite field hockey, with special reference to repeated-sprint activity. Journal of Sports Sciences, 22(9), 843–850. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410410001716715
Stanković, M., Stojanović, E., & Milanović, Z. (2021). The 30–15 Intermittent Fitness Test: A systematic review of its reliability, validity, and application. Journal of Sports Science & Medicine, 20(1), 1–10.
Thurlow, J., McMahon, S., & Reilly, T. (2023). Programming repeat-sprint ability in team sports: Sprint length, rest intervals, and tactical integration. Journal of Athletic Training, 58(1), 33–42. https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-0194.21
Walker, J. (2016). Correcting shuttle-based MAS testing for field sports: A practical formula. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 11(6), 745–750. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2015-0421
