From TABLE to TURF

Women's hockey is making the most of a new generation of tools from sophisticated data analysis to individualized physiology, each transforming how athletes fuel, recover, and adapt. Nowhere is this more evident than in the emergent focus on precision nutrition—an approach that moves beyond generic dietary prescriptions, instead giving a nuanced understanding of how menstrual cycle phases modulate energy availability, nutrient needs, hydration, and recovery pathways (Holtzman & Ackerman, 2021; Wohlgemuth et al., 2021). 

Female hockey players—whose workload, stress, and metabolic demands align with some of the most rigorous in all sport—stand to benefit from integrating hormonal phase-specific nutritional strategies that may optimize performance, minimize injury risks, and navigate the boundaries of overtraining (Ackerman et al., 2019; GSSI, 2021).

Let’s look at  evidence-based recommendations for synchronizing macronutrient ratios, micronutrient support, hydration, and supplementation with the fluctuating hormonal milieu across the menstrual cycle. 

The Menstrual Cycle - Hormonal Patterns and Athletic Implications

The menstrual cycle, spanning roughly 21-35 days, is hormonally dynamic, transitioning from low estrogen and progesterone in the early follicular phase, to surges in estrogen at ovulation, and elevated progesterone in the luteal phase (Wohlgemuth et al., 2021; Sport Wales, 2024). These hormonal shiſts are anything but trivial: they regulate substrate use, neuromuscular function, thermoregulation, fluid balance, and inflammatory responses—all of which shape an athlete's experience, training outcomes, and injury vulnerability (Rodriguez-Giustiniani et al., 2022; Chaireti et al., 2016).

• Early Follicular Phase (Menstruation/Days 1–5): Estrogen and progesterone are at their low point. Energy, mood, and pain perception may fluctuate; iron loss is at its highest.
  

• Late Follicular/Ovulatory Phase (Days 6–14): Estrogen gradually rises, peaking just prior to ovulation, testosterone levels may also transiently spike. Progesterone remains low until after ovulation. This is often a “high-performance window” for most athletes.
  

• Luteal Phase (Days 15–28): Progesterone dominates. Both estrogen and progesterone are relatively elevated before a precipitous drop pre-menstruation. Increased body temperature, reduced insulin sensitivity, and more frequent reports of fatigue, food cravings, and mood changes characterize this stage.

Understanding this provides the foundation for optimal phase-specific nutritional and hydration interventions.

Substrate Utilization and Energy Availability - Hormonal Modulation and Implications

Research consistently demonstrates that the menstrual cycle modulates substrate preference and energy turnover, though marked  variability between individuals remains. Estrogen, especially when unopposed by progesterone, tends to promote fat oxidation and glycogen sparing, whereas progesterone can increase protein catabolism and reduce insulin sensitivity (Isacco et al., 2012; Wohlgemuth et al., 2021).

• Early Follicular Phase: Substrate use resembles the male pattern; carbohydrate utilization is optimized, which matches the higher-intensity demands and recovery needs in sports like hockey. Energy requirements are slightly lower due to decreased resting metabolic rate at this phase (Rogan & Black, 2023).

• Late Follicular/Ovulatory Phase: Insulin sensitivity and muscle protein synthesis peak. Athletes are metabolically poised to make the most of explosive, high-reward training. There may be increased reliance on glycogen and less on fat compared to the luteal phase.
  

• Luteal Phase: Progesterone drives up resting metabolic rate, but with it, increased protein breakdown and reduced carbohydrate utilization efficiency. Many athletes report higher hunger, cravings, and the potential for impaired fuel use during intense sessions—a double bind if nutritional intake is not consciously increased (Cronometer, 2023).

Phase-Specific Macronutrient Strategies

Early Follicular Phase: Capitalizing on Carbohydrate Metabolism

During menstruation and the immediate days following, hormonal levels are low, coinciding with enhanced carbohydrate metabolism—making this an ideal phase for uploading explosive strength work and high-intensity intervals. Glycogen replenishment and rapid recovery are supported with higher carbohydrate intake.

Recommended Macronutrient Distribution

• Carbohydrates: 6–8 g/kg body weight per day, prioritizing complex and simple sources pre, during, and post training (GSSI, 2021; First Endurance, 2021).

• Protein: 1.6–2.0 g/kg, with immediate post-exercise intake to support muscle repair and adaptation.

• Fat: 20–30% total energy, emphasizing anti-inflammatory fats (omega-3s from fish, chia/flaxseed, olive oil).

Practical Example

A team menu might feature oatmeal with berries and seeds for breakfast, grilled chicken wraps with wholegrain tortillas for lunch, and brown rice or sweet potato-based dinners. Post-workout shakes with whey protein and banana provide timely recovery.

Considerations

Iron-rich foods and/or low-dose supplementation support the repletion of stores lost during menstruation (Panoff, 2025). Vitamin C-rich fruits should be paired with plant iron sources for improved absorption.

Late Follicular/Ovulatory Phase: Maximizing Anabolic Potential

The mid-cycle window—high estrogen, low progesterone—is characterized by increased insulin sensitivity and muscle protein synthesis, enhancing adaptation to high-load training (Spindler, 2024).

Macronutrient Strategy:

• Carbohydrate: 5–7 g/kg, with focus on timing—pre- and-post exercise—and leveraging higher glycemic options around training to refuel quickly.

• Protein: 1.8–2.2 g/kg, as the body’s anabolic environment supports increased lean mass gains.

• Fat: 25–30% energy.

Emphasize antioxidant-rich vegetables and fruits to buffer against oxidative stress induced by higher training loads.

Example Team Menu: Pre-game meals of whole-grain pasta with mixed vegetables and grilled fish; post-game smoothies with spinach, berries, Greek yogurt, and honey.

Luteal Phase: Counteracting Catabolism and Supporting Recovery

The shift to progesterone dominance drives up resting metabolic rate (by 100–300 kcal/day on average), lowers insulin sensitivity, and increases protein catabolism (Cronometer, 2023; Sport Wales, 2024; Rogan & Black, 2023).It can interfere with melatonin production and thermoregulation.

Many women experience heightened hunger, cravings, potential bloating, and decreased thermoregulation here. This hormonal shift is linked to lighter sleep, more awakenings, and reduced deep sleep in many athletes.

Attention to sleep architecture is more important than ever.

• Cool the sleep environment: Aim for 16–19 °C; use breathable bedding and moisture‑wicking sleepwear. Pre‑bed cooling: A lukewarm shower 60–90 min before bed can trigger a rebound cooling effect, helping the body drop into sleep.

• Avoid overheating: Skip heavy blankets or late‑night hot drinks.

Nutritional Tweaks for Sleep

• Magnesium (leafy greens, pumpkin seeds, or supplement) — supports muscle relaxation and can reduce PMS‑related insomnia.

• Tryptophan‑rich snacks (e.g., Greek yoghurt with berries, turkey slices) 30–60 min before bed to aid serotonin/melatonin synthesis.

• Stable blood sugar: Pair carbs with protein in the evening to avoid nocturnal hypoglycaemia, which can wake you.

• Morning light exposure: 15–20 min outdoors to anchor circadian rhythm. Dim lights 60 min pre‑bed: Reduce blue light from screens; consider blue‑light‑blocking glasses if evening video review is unavoidable.

Hydration Timing

• Front‑load fluids earlier in the day; taper after dinner to reduce night waking for urination.

• Electrolytes earlier in the day can help with fluid balance without late‑night bladder load.

Training Load Adjustments

• If sleep is consistently disrupted in late luteal, schedule lighter technical or tactical sessions rather than heavy conditioning.

• Avoid late‑evening high‑intensity work that spikes core temperature and sympathetic drive.

 Mind–Body Downshift

• Breathwork (4‑7‑8 or box breathing) pre‑bed to activate parasympathetic tone.

• Progressive muscle relaxation to reduce pelvic floor and lower‑back tension, which can be heightened in PMS.

Macronutrient Distribution

• Carbohydrates: 5–6 g/kg, distributed evenly and with an emphasis on low glycemic index options to stabilize blood sugar.

• Protein: 1.8–2.2 g/kg, with slightly increased total intake to offset greater breakdown and support immune function.

• Fat: 30–35% energy, focusing on omega-3s and monounsaturated fats.

Practical Example

Include snacks such as nut butter on whole-grain toast or low-fat cheese with apple slices; main meals like salmon or tofu with quinoa, leafy greens, and avocado.

To help reduce bloating and irritability, prioritize potassium and magnesium-rich foods (bananas, spinach, seeds) and fiber from vegetables and whole grains.

Micronutrient Support

The importance of micronutrient sufficiency cannot be overstated. Deficiencies—especially in iron, calcium, vitamin D, magnesium, and zinc—are common among female athletes and can undermine menstrual function, bone health, immune resilience, and recovery (Holtzman & Ackerman, 2021; Sport Wales, 2024).

Iron

Iron loss through menses is a critical risk factor for fatigue, impaired cognition, and reduced performance. Supplementation, when warranted by deficiency, and iron-rich dietary choices (red meat, legumes, leafy greens) are essential, especially in the early follicular phase (Panoff, 2025).

Calcium and Vitamin D

These nutrients underpin bone health, critical in a contact sport like hockey. Both supplementation and dietary sources (dairy, fortified non-dairy milks, leafy greens, oily fish) are important, particularly as relative energy deficiency impairs their absorption and balance.

Magnesium and Potassium

Magnesium supports hormone metabolism and helps blunt PM symptoms; potassium aids fluid balance and may reduce bloating. Dietary focus should intensify during the luteal phase.

Zinc

Supports progesterone synthesis, immune function, and recovery; crucial in the late follicular and luteal phases (First Endurance, 2021).

Menstrual Cycle Impacts on Fluid Regulation

Estrogen increases the osmotic threshold for thirst, potentially delaying fluid intake cues during the late follicular phase. Progesterone, peaking in the luteal phase, can lead to sodium retention, altered sweating, and increased susceptibility to heat-related issues and bloating (Rodriguez-Giustiniani et al., 2022; Functionalfueling.com, 2023).

Recent studies note that although fluid and electrolyte needs may not change drastically in most women across the cycle, those with greater hormonal fluctuations (or with cycle irregularities) are vulnerable to fluid imbalances (Rodriguez-Giustiniani et al., 2022).

Practical Implementation

• Early Follicular: Aim for 35–40 mL/kg/day, increasing during training; consider electrolyte solutions if heavy bleeding compromises sodium or potassium balance.

• Ovulatory/Luteal: Same total water intake, but focus on including sodium and potassium via sports drinks, salty snacks, and potassium-rich foods to counteract fluid retention and facilitate heat dispersion (Gatorade, 2024).

During Games/Training

5–7 mL/kg fluid with sodium 4 hours pre-session, and 3–5 mL/kg 2 hours pre-session (Gatorade, 2024). Reinforce with sips during every change, ensuring access to chilled, palatable fluids preferably containing carbohydrates and electrolytes.

Post-Exercise

Rehydration with 1.5x the amount of fluid lost, ideally via a beverage with sodium and potassium, ensures rapid recovery.

Supplementation

Supplement use in elite women’s hockey must be deliberate; efficacy, safety, and compliance with anti-doping regulations are paramount (Wohlgemuth et al., 2021). Always consult your primary healthcare professional rather than GOOP before contemplating supplementation.

Iron

Supplementation is strongly recommended only if testing indicates deficiency. Regular monitoring is essential, with a preference for food-based approaches in the absence of deficiency due to constipation and GI side effects (Panoff, 2025).

Creatine

Recent trials demonstrate creatine monohydrate (loading protocol: 4×5 g/day for 5 days, then maintenance at 2–5 g/day) improves total body water retention equally across all menstrual phases, without adverse effects on fluid balance or electrolyte status (Moore et al., 2023). Creatine may also support cognitive function and reduce fatigue—especially relevant in high-intensity, collision sports.

Omega-3 Fatty Acids

Anti-inflammatory effects, mood stabilization, and potential mitigation of muscle soreness make omega-3s (via diet or supplementation) valuable throughout the cycle—especially during the luteal phase where inflammation and soreness may spike (First Endurance, 2021).

Vitamin D

Most athletes, particularly in northern latitudes, extended winters or training indoors, should supplement to reach adequate serum levels for immune and bone health.

Magnesium

Supplementation may relieve premenstrual symptoms, muscle cramps, and sleep disturbances; dietary sources remain the foundation, but a moderate dose supplement (200–400 mg) in the late luteal phase is rational.

Caution

Personalized protocols, grounded in assessment and professional oversight, must be in place to avoid overuse or forbidden substances.

Thermoregulation and Electrolyte Balance: A Hormonal Perspective

Basal Body Temperature (BBT) Fluctuations

Estrogen lowers, and progesterone raises basal body temperature. Pre-menstrual and luteal phases see persistently elevated BBTs (0.3–0.5°C), which can increase perceived exertion and impair heat loss (Vinmec, 2024; Rodriguez-Giustiniani et al., 2022).

Athletes are advised to:

• Monitor subjective heat strain during the luteal phase, adjusting cooling strategies if needed (cold towels, ice packs).

• Increase attention to fluid intake and electrolytes, as higher BBT may augment fluid loss during longer or repeated sessions.

Inflammatory Responses and Recovery

Inflammation is closely coupled with hormonal interplay. The follicular phase, particularly early on, is associated with higher levels of inflammatory markers like C-reactive protein (CRP) and pentraxin-3, compared to the luteal phase (Chaireti et al., 2016). This may affect soreness, healing, and perceived recovery.

• Early Follicular: Anti-inflammatory dietary patterns—rich in omega-3s, polyphenols (berries, leafy greens), turmeric, and ginger—are particularly valuable. Sufficient sleep and recovery adapted to higher soreness are also recommended.

• Luteal: Despite potentially lower systemic inflammatory markers, the cumulative load of training and metabolic stress may elevate PMS-like symptoms, including headaches and muscle cramps. Magnesium, omega-3s, and hydration help buffer these effects.

Injury Risk and Overtraining

The luteal phase is notable for increased ligament laxity and reduced neuromuscular control—implicating progesterone’s relaxing effect on connective tissues. This enhances flexibility but may reduce joint stability, raising the risk for injuries such as ACL tears, especially during sudden direction changes (The Mental Game Clinic, 2023; UCL, 2024).

• UCL (2024) found female footballers were six times more likely to suffer muscle injuries in the late luteal phase compared to menstruation onset—a statistic likely translatable to hockey, given its explosive, multidirectional demands.

Overtraining and Energy Deficiency

Disrupted cycles—oligomenorrhea, amenorrhea—are warning signals of relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S), with far-reaching effects on health, adaptation, and performance (Holtzman & Ackerman, 2021; Stickler et al., 2019).

• Monitoring of training load, mood, and menstruation regularity should be embedded in team protocols (Coros, 2023).

• Energy intake should not fall below 45 kcal/kg fat-free mass/day (Holtzman & Ackerman, 2021)

Menu Planning -  Translating Science Into Team Practice

Menstrual-informed menu planning requires flexibility, seasonal adaptation, and sensitivity to individual variation. Key principles include:

• Meal Diversity: Rotate options rich in iron, omega-3s, magnesium, and complex carbohydrates.

• Phase-Specific Emphasis: Increase iron-rich foods and vitamin C during menstruation, complex carbs and antioxidant-rich choices around ovulation, and magnesium/potassium-rich foods pre-menstruation.

• Snack Strategy: Portable, easily digestible snacks (fruit, nuts, iron-fortified bars) are crucial for on-the-go fueling between periods of play or training.

Education 

Athlete education is most successful when it is empowering, accessible, practical, and collaborative.

• Workshops and Handouts: Semi-academic briefings explaining substrate use, phase-specific cravings, and the “why” of menu choices build buy-in (Holtzman & Ackerman, 2021; Northeast Women’s Hockey League).

• Small-Group Discussions: Peer sharing of experiences, with nutritionists facilitating troubleshooting of appetite, fatigue, and GI symptoms.

• Cycle Tracking Integration: Encourage use of apps (e.g., FitrWoman, Flo) that help athletes log menstrual phase, symptoms, and performance—aiding personalization of nutrition and training (Real Nutrition LLC, 2020).

Data Sharing and Monitoring

Modern sports environments increasingly rely on subjective and objective data streams—from digital logs to blood biomarkers. Yet, data handling must observe privacy, consent, and relevance.

• Best Practice: Data should be anonymized or athlete-controlled, with transparent consent about who sees what (Evening Report, 2022).

• Focus Areas: Menstrual tracking, injury logs, and nutritional intake data should be synthesized for coaches and nutrition staff, helping to spot red flags for overtraining, dietary insufficiency, or at-risk phases for injury.

Practical Case Studies and Examples from Women’s Hockey including Ice Hockey

The translation of evidence into real-world success is evident in modern women’s leagues. For instance:

• Northeast Women’s Hockey League: Nutritionists and athletes co-created dynamic fueling strategies, applying menstrual cycle awareness to daily menus and recovery protocols, resulting in reduced mid-season fatigue and a drop in non-contact injuries. Trust and education fueled the uptake of these innovations, with practical menu templates that included iron-rich meals around menstruation and omega-3-laden snacks in team catering pre-luteal phase.

• Elite Hockey Clubs: Teams have begun integrating hydration status monitoring with menstrual cycle tracking, ensuring late luteal and ovulatory players have access to personalized electrolyte beverages and cooling strategies—a move correlated with reduced reported cramping and perceived exertion.

• Menu Examples: Recovery meals post-intense workouts in the luteal phase include salmon/quinoa bowls with spinach and pumpkin seeds, while pre-game breakfast during ovulation may feature Greek yogurt parfait with mixed berries and flaxseeds for protein and inflammation support.

By synchronizing macronutrient, micronutrient, hydration, and supplementation strategies to the menstrual cycle, hockey teams unlock windows of peak performance, resilience, and optimized recovery. Embracing this approach requires the convergence of research, athlete education, collaborative menu planning, ethical data monitoring, and a supportive team culture.

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