get AROUSED

Performance in sport is shaped not only by physical conditioning but by the psychological state you bring into competition. Arousal and relaxation levels are central to finding and maintaining a suitable level of  readiness. While some athletes thrive in heightened states of activation, others require calmness to access precision and control. Understanding these differences — and the psychosocial contexts that shape them — enables coaches and athletes to design evidence‑based interventions that optimise pre‑game states.

Arousal Levels, External Factors and Individual Differences

Physiological arousal

Activation of the sympathetic nervous system is reflected in heart rate, cortisol, and muscle tension (Weinberg & Gould, 2019), and further expressed through heightened respiration, increased blood flow to skeletal muscles, and reduced gastrointestinal activity. This state prepares the body for action by mobilising energy reserves, sharpening attentional focus, and amplifying emotional intensity, though excessive arousal can impair fine motor control and decision‑making under pressure.

Weather 

Hockey is played in all sorts of conditions; try playing in Melbourne or NZ’s North Harbour.This directly influences physiological arousal by altering thermoregulation, cardiovascular strain, and stress hormone release. Heat and humidity elevate sympathetic activation (higher heart rate, cortisol, dehydration risk), while cold suppresses muscle readiness and increases stiffness, both requiring tailored warm‑up adjustments.

Heat and Humidity

High temperatures increase core body temperature, heart rate, and cortisol secretion, amplifying sympathetic arousal (Sawka et al., 2011). Your sympathetic nervous system is well loaded before you start.

Humidity impairs evaporative cooling, leading to faster dehydration and higher perceived exertion (Cheung et al., 2000). Elevated fluid loss without adequate electrolyte replacement disrupts sodium and potassium balance, which increases sympathetic arousal, heightens anxiety through perceived fatigue, and impairs neuromuscular performance under competitive stress (Sawka et al., 2007; Shirreffs & Sawka, 2011).

Cold Environments

Cold exposure reduces muscle temperature, slowing nerve conduction and contraction velocity (Racinais & Oksa, 2010).

This creates a mismatch: low physiological arousal (sluggishness, stiffness) but high cognitive anxiety (fear of injury, contact,performance drop).

Sympathetic activation may spike once activity begins, but without adequate warmup, injury risk rises. Warm ups need to be longer and orchestrated with a view to gradual elevation of activation, mobility and cardiovascular upregulation.

Wind and Rain

Wind chill increases heat loss, lowering muscle readiness.

Rain elevates stress through surface unpredictability, increasing cognitive arousal and attentional load (Royal Meteorological Society, 2011). When subjected to both, energy is sapped and with it error rates rise.

Implications for Warm‑Up Routines

In Hot/Humid Conditions

Shorter, lower‑intensity warm‑ups to avoid excessive pre‑game fatigue.

Emphasise hydration and cooling strategies (cold towels, use fans & shaded rest).

Use breathing drills to down‑regulate sympathetic drive before play.

In Cold Conditions

Extended warm‑ups with progressive intensity to raise muscle temperature.

Include dynamic mobility (lunges, skips, adductor activation) to counter stiffness.

Layer clothing to maintain warmth between drills and game start.

In Wet/Windy Conditions

Prioritise neuromuscular activation (balance, proprioception) to adapt to unstable surfaces.

Use mental rehearsal/visualisation to reduce anxiety from unpredictable conditions. As with any weather condition for match play, having had pevious exposure during training will reduce the impact on game day.

Individual variations

Trait anxiety

Higher baseline arousal in athletes is revealed with elevated trait anxiety (Martens et al., 1990), characterised by consistently greater sympathetic activation, elevated cortisol, and heightened vigilance even before competition begins. Contemporary evidence shows that athletes with high trait anxiety display reduced heart rate variability, impaired attentional control, and greater susceptibility to performance‑related worry (Craft et al., 2003; Smith et al., 2006). These athletes often require tailored psychological skills training — such as mindfulness, acceptance‑based interventions, and cognitive restructuring — to regulate arousal and maintain performance consistency under pressure (Noetel et al., 2017; Rogowska & Tataruch, 2024).

Athletes are typically assessed for trait anxiety in sport using validated psychometric tools such as the Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT) and the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory‑2 (CSAI‑2), both developed by Martens and colleagues (1990). These instruments measure stable anxiety tendencies (trait) and situational responses (state), providing evidence‑based insight into how anxiety influences arousal and performance. 

Key Assessment Tools

Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT)

Purpose

Measures trait anxiety — the stable tendency of an athlete to experience anxiety in competitive situations.

Format

15‑item questionnaire with responses on a 3‑point scale (“rarely,” “sometimes,” “often”).

Interpretation

Higher scores indicate greater predisposition to anxiety in sport contexts.

Martens et al. (1990) demonstrated strong reliability and validity of this scale, with SCAT widely used in sport psychology research to predict baseline arousal levels.

Competitive State Anxiety Inventory‑2 (CSAI‑2)

Purpose

Measures state anxiety (cognitive and somatic) and self‑confidence immediately before competition.

Format

27 items, assessing three dimensions:

Cognitive anxiety (worry, negative expectations).

Somatic anxiety (physiological arousal, tension).

Self‑confidence (positive belief in ability).

Developed by Martens, Burton, Vealey, Bump, & Smith (1990). This scale has been validated across multiple sports, showing predictive links between anxiety profiles and performance outcomes. Ignore it at your own risk; at least try it with shootout candidates, for example.

Why These Tools Matter

Trait anxiety assessment (SCAT)

Identifies athletes who consistently operate at higher baseline arousal. These individuals may need more relaxation strategies pre‑game.If not supported they may impact others.

State anxiety assessment (CSAI‑2)

Captures fluctuations in arousal before specific competitions, helping coaches tailor interventions (e.g., breathing drills, activation routines).

Combining both provides a comprehensive profile — trait anxiety sets the baseline, while state anxiety shows situational variation.

Screening

Administer SCAT during preseason to identify players with high trait anxiety.

Monitoring

Use CSAI‑2 before key matches and tournaments to track situational anxiety and confidence.

Intervention

High trait anxiety athletes → emphasise relaxation routines (diaphragmatic breathing, mindfulness).

Low trait anxiety athletes → may require activation strategies to reach optimal arousal.

Coaches can use these assessments to avoid one‑size‑fits‑all pre‑game routines, instead tailoring preparation to individual profiles.

How to Interpret SCAT Scores

• High SCAT scores: Athlete has elevated baseline arousal.

• Low SCAT scores: Athlete maintains calm baseline, may require activation cues.

  High trait anxiety athletes

Emphasise relaxation routines (diaphragmatic breathing, progressive muscle relaxation).

Reduce cognitive load in warmup (simple drills, clear instructions). Never overload these people; ever, with information or advice.

Low trait anxiety athletes

Use activation cues (dynamic warmup, motivational language, rhythmic music).

Monitoring State Anxiety

Purpose

Measures cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and self‑confidence immediately before competition (Martens et al., 1990).

Coaching implications

High cognitive anxiety

Integrate mindfulness cues and visualisation.

Provide reassurance and role clarity.

High somatic anxiety

Use breathing drills and vagal resets to down‑regulate.

Avoid over‑intense warm‑ups.

Low self‑confidence

Reinforce past successes.

Use peer support and team rituals to elevate confidence.

Practical Scenarios

(1) High SCAT + High CSAI‑2 Cognitive Anxiety

The player is consistently anxious and situationally worried. 

Approach tip: relaxation emphasis, simplified warm‑up, mindfulness cue before game.

(2) Low SCAT + High CSAI‑2 Somatic Anxiety

The player is usually calm but physiologically over‑activated before the match. 

Approach tip:  breathing drills, reduced warm‑up intensity, cooling strategies.

(3) Moderate SCAT + Low CSAI‑2 Self‑Confidence

The player has manageable baseline anxiety but doubts ability in key matches. 

Approach tip: positive peer reinforcement, coach affirmation, confidence‑building drills.

Distractions and Mindfulness

Athletes often enter competition already in a heightened arousal state, which can push them past their optimal zone (Yerkes & Dodson, 1908); more recent research confirms that excessive arousal impairs performance consistency, with studies showing that mobile phone dependence and pre‑competition multimedia use (e.g., Snapchat, streaming content) elevate cognitive anxiety, disrupt attentional focus, and increase sympathetic activation, reducing execution quality in sport (Mei et al., 2024; Machale, 2024; Hanin, in press).Excessive smartphone/social media use before competition elevates anxiety, reduces sleep quality, and impairs attentional control, directly affecting performance outcomes (Mei et al., 2024).

Multimedia distraction

Pre‑game engagement with apps like Snapchat or TikTok increases cognitive load and emotional arousal, leading to reduced focus and higher perceived stress (Machale, 2024).

Athletes exposed to multimedia stimuli immediately before competition show higher heart rate variability and cortisol spikes, markers of sympathetic over‑activation (Frontiers in Psychology, 2024).

Levels of exposure need to be self directed and peer influenced-monitored so as to be downregulated within an hour of the game.

The Role of Mindfulness Cues

Mindfulness cues help athletes regulate arousal, reduce anxiety, and sharpen attentional control before and during competition. They act as simple, repeatable anchors that bring focus to the present moment, preventing distraction by worry or over‑activation.

The benefits list is extensive:

Emotion regulation

Mindfulness reduces reactivity of the amygdala and enhances prefrontal control, allowing athletes to manage stress and anxiety more effectively (Rogowska & Tataruch, 2024).A quiet mind, by nature, requires less energy better used in the game.

Attentional focus

Cues redirect attention away from intrusive thoughts and toward task‑relevant stimuli, improving concentration (Noetel et al., 2017).

Performance consistency

By stabilising arousal, mindfulness supports entry into flow states and reduces performance variability (Wang et al., 2023).

Resilience under pressure

Mindfulness interventions decrease cognitive interference and promote adaptive coping in high‑stakes environments (Jadhav, 2025).

Examples of Mindfulness Cues for Players

These cues are short, repeatable, and linked to breath, body, or task:

Breath Anchors

Cue: “In… out…” or “Calm breath” repeated silently with each inhale/exhale.

Slow breathing enhances vagal tone and reduces sympathetic activation (Jerath et al., 2006).

Body Awareness Anchors

Cue: “Grounded feet” while noticing pressure through the soles before a penalty corner.

Somatic mindfulness improves proprioception and reduces muscle tension (Rogowska & Tataruch, 2024).

Task‑Focused Anchors

Cue: “ Watch the ball right onto the stick when receiving” 

Task‑relevant self‑talk improves attentional control and execution under stress (Noetel et al., 2017).

Acceptance Anchors

Cue: “Let it pass; shit happens, you have the next one” when intrusive thoughts arise.

Acceptance‑based mindfulness reduces rumination and cognitive anxiety (Noetel et al., 2017).

Reset Anchors

Cue: “Forget it. Next play-bring it” after an error, paired with a single deep breath.

Mindfulness resets reduce carry‑over stress and improve resilience (Wang et al., 2023).

Practical Application

• Pre‑game: Use breath or body cues during warm‑up to stabilise arousal.

• In‑game: Deploy task‑focused or reset cues at set moments (e.g., before free hits, after turnovers).

• Team integration: Coaches can embed shared cues (“reset,” “together”) to synchronise group focus.

Coaches 

We recommend you learn how to translate assessment scores into tailored routines; avoid one‑size‑fits‑all warm‑ups. Provide tailored routines (activation vs relaxation).

Use language cues to frame arousal positively (“energy” vs “nerves”).Engage experts as needed; at best you are a generalist so get real.In many instances in masters hockey you are a self deluded muppet or a well intentioned, well prepared and qualified individual there to make a difference, i.e. an outlier.

Peers

Provide unequivocal social support, reinforcing trust and reducing anxiety (Carron et al., 2002).

Team cohesion reduces anxiety: athletes who perceive strong peer support report lower cognitive anxiety and higher confidence (Carron et al., 2002).

Peer support buffers stress, reinforcing trust and reducing anxiety (Carron et al., 2002).

Shared rituals (chants, huddles) synchronise arousal levels.

Audience 

Audience presence elevates arousal, enhancing simple tasks but hindering complex ones.Train players to reinterpret crowd presence as energising rather than threatening (Zajonc, 1965). It does not need an MCG level of audience to trigger many players one way or the other e.g. presence of national selectors or loved ones can have a similar effect.

Arousal Case Studies and Scenarios

Precision vs Power

A hockey goalkeeper reports that high crowd noise elevates arousal, impairing fine motor control during penalty corners. Relaxation routines (breathing, PMR) restore precision.

Activation for Sprint Performance

A forward thrives on elevated arousal, using rhythmic music and dynamic warm‑ups to heighten activation before explosive sprints.

Audience Effects

A junior international player experiences performance anxiety in front of large crowds. Coaches implement graded exposure — starting with small audiences — to build tolerance.

Sleep Science and Arousal Regulation

Sleep as recovery

Adequate sleep stabilises arousal thresholds, reducing baseline anxiety (Fullagar et al., 2015).

Circadian rhythm

Misalignment increases irritability and lowers tolerance to arousal spikes (Czeisler et al., 1999).

The salience of healthy sleep practices, architecture and support resources cannot be overstated. Hockey organisations need to be more active in working with players and coaches to improve their knowledge of healthy sleep practices and enabling them to be used, particularly when travelling.

Pre‑game sleep strategies

Fluid cut‑off to reduce nocturia.

Evening relaxation stack (ZMA, pygeum, ashwagandha).

Consistent nap window (2–3 pm) to reinforce circadian stability.

Sleep enhances prefrontal regulation of the amygdala, improving emotional control under stress (Yoo et al., 2007).

Relaxation and Activation Exercises

Relaxation

Diaphragmatic breathing (Jerath et al., 2006).

Progressive muscle relaxation (Jacobson, 1938).

Mindfulness meditation (Kabat‑Zinn, 1990).

Activation

Dynamic warm‑up with rhythmic music (Thaut, 2005). Don’t be afraid to get funky.

Cold‑water vagal stimulation (Breit et al., 2018). Face and hands will provide afferent and efferent coverage - no need for ice baths.

Visualisation with multisensory cues (Moran, 2016). Positive, relevant and not necessarily technical-tactical more skills execution video footage can be used.

Summary

Arousal regulation is a dynamic process shaped by individual differences, team contexts, and environmental factors such as weather, audience presence and other potential distracctions. Coaches and peers play a critical role in framing arousal positively and embedding routines that balance activation and relaxation. Sleep science underscores the importance of recovery in stabilising arousal thresholds. By integrating psychosocial theory, neuroscience hacks, and practical exercises, athletes can tailor pre‑game routines to their optimal arousal zone.

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